MARGARINE
Margarine is a spread used
for flavoring, baking, and cooking, that was first made in France in
1869. It was created by Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès in response to a
challenge by Emperor Napoleon III to create a butter substitute
from beef tallow for the armed forces and lower
classes. First named oleomargarine from Latin for oleum (olive oil)
and Greek for margarite(pearl indicating luster), it was later named margarine.
Margarine, like butter, consists of a water-in-fat emulsion, with
tiny droplets of water dispersed uniformly throughout a fat phase in
a stable crystalline form. In some jurisdictions, margarine must have a
minimum fat content of 80% to be labelled as such, the same as butter. Colloquially
in the United States, the term margarine is used to describe "non-dairy
spreads" with varying fat contents.
Due to its versatility, margarine can be used as an
ingredient in other food products, such as pastries, doughnuts, and cookies
History
Margarine originated with the discovery by French
chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul in 1813 of margaric acid (itself named after the
pearly deposits of the fatty acid from Greek μαργαρίτης or
μάργαρον (margaritēs / márgaron), meaning pearl-oyster or pearl, or μαργαρίς (margarís),
meaning palm-tree, hence the relevance to palmitic acid). Scientists at
the time regarded margaric acid, like oleic acid and stearic
acid, as one of the three fatty acids that,
in combination, form most animal fats. In 1853, the German structural
chemist Wilhelm Heinrich Heintz analyzed
margaric acid as simply a combination of stearic acid and the previously
unknown palmitic acid.
Emperor Napoleon III of France offered a prize to
anyone who could make a satisfactory butter alternative, suitable for use by
the armed
forces and the lower
classes. French chemist Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès invented a
substance he called oleomargarine, which became shortened to the trade name margarine.
Mège-Mouriès patented the concept in 1869 and expanded his initial
manufacturing operation from France, but had little commercial success. In
1871, he sold the patent to the Dutch company Jurgens, now part of Unilever. In
the same year a German pharmacist, Benedict Klein from Cologne, founded
the first margarine factory "Benedict Klein Margarinewerke",
producing the brands Overstolz and Botteram.
Newspaper ad for the oleomargarine product, 1919.
Product made by the Swift
& Company from by-products of the animal processing business.
John Steele wrote in his 1850 California gold
miner's journal: "I became acquainted with Mr. Daniels, from Baltimore,
who... manufactured butter from tallow and lard, and it looked and tasted so
much like real butter, that... I could not tell the difference. However, he
deceived no one, but sold it for just what it was. He never explained the
process of its manufacture, and whether he was the originator of oleomargarine
I do not know."
The principal raw material in the original
formulation of margarine was beef fat. In 1871, Henry W. Bradley of Binghamton, New York received U.S. Patent 110,626 for
a process of creating margarine that combined vegetable oils (primarily cottonseed
oil) with animal fats. By the late 19th century, some 37 companies
were manufacturing margarine in opposition to the butter industry, which
protested and lobbied for government intervention, eventually leading to the
1886 Margarine Act imposing punitive fees against margarine manufacturers.
Shortages in beef fat supply combined with advances
by Boyce and Sabatier in the hydrogenation of
plant materials soon accelerated the use of Bradley's method, and between 1900
and 1920 commercial oleomargarine was produced from a combination of animal
fats and hardened and unhardened vegetable oils. The depression of the
1930s, followed by the rationing of World
War II, led to a reduction in supply of animal fat and butter, and, by
1945, "original" margarine almost completely disappeared from the
market. In the United States, problems with supply, coupled with changes
in legislation, caused manufacturers to switch almost completely to vegetable
oils and fats (oleomargarine) by 1950, and the industry was ready for an era of
product development.
While butter that cows produced had a slightly
yellow color, margarine had a white color, making the margarine look more
like lard,
which many people found unappetizing. Around the late 1880s, the manufacturers
began coloring the margarine yellow to improve sales.
Dairy firms, especially in Wisconsin, became alarmed
and succeeded in getting legislation passed to prohibit the coloring of the
stark white product. In response, the margarine companies distributed the
margarine together with a packet of yellow food
coloring. The product was placed in a bowl and the coloring mixed in
manually. This took some time and effort, and it was not unusual for the final
product to be served as a light and dark yellow, or even white, striped
product. During World War II, there was a shortage of butter in the
United States, and "oleomargarine" became popular. In 1951, the
W.E. Dennison Company received U.S. Patent 2,553,513 for
a method to place a capsule of yellow dye inside a plastic package of
margarine. After purchase, the capsule was broken inside the package, and then
the package was kneaded to distribute the dye. Around 1955, the artificial
coloring laws were repealed, and margarine could for the first time be sold colored
like butter.
During WWII rationing, only two types of margarine
were available in the UK, a premium brand and a cheaper budget brand. With the
end of rationing in 1955, the market was opened to the forces of supply
and demand, and brand marketing became prevalent. The competition
between the major producers was given further impetus with the beginning of
commercial television advertising in 1955 and, throughout the 1950s and 1960s,
competing companies vied with each other to produce the margarine that tasted
most like butter.
In the mid-1960s, the introduction of two lower-fat
blends of butter oil and vegetable oils in Scandinavia, called Lätt &
Lagom and Bregott, clouded the issue of what should be called
"margarine" and began the debate that led to the introduction of the
term "spread". In 1978, an 80% fat product called krona,
made by churning a blend of dairy cream and vegetable oils, was introduced in
Europe and, in 1982, a blend of cream and vegetable oils called clover was
introduced in the UK by the Milk Marketing Board. The vegetable oil
and cream spread I Can't Believe It's Not Butter! was
introduced into the United States in 1981, and in the United Kingdom and Canada
in 1991.
In the 21st century, margarine spreads had many
developments to improve their consumer appeal. Most brands phased out the use
of hydrogenated oils and became trans fat free.
Many brands launched refrigerator-stable margarine spreads that contain only
1/3 of the fat and calorie content of traditional spreads. Other varieties of
spreads include those with added Omega-3 fatty acids, low or no salt, added plant
sterols (claimed to reduce blood
cholesterol), olive oil, or certified vegan oils. In
the early 21st century, manufacturers provided margarines in plastic squeeze
bottles to ease dispensing and offered pink margarine as a novelty.
CREAM CHEESE
Cream cheese is a soft, mild-tasting fresh
cheese made from milk and cream. Stabilizers such as carob
bean gum and carrageenan are typically added in industrial
production.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration defines
cream cheese as containing at least 33% milk fat with
a moisture content of not more than 55%, and a pH range of 4.4 to
4.9. Similarly, under Canadian Food and Drug Regulations cream cheese must
contain at least 30% milk fat and a maximum of 55% moisture. In other
countries, it is defined differently and may need a considerably higher fat
content.
Cream cheese is not naturally matured and is meant
to be consumed fresh, so it differs from other soft cheeses such as Brie and Neufchâtel. It is more comparable in taste,
texture, and production methods to Boursin and Mascarpone.
Cream cheese is often spread on bread, bagels, crackers,
etc., and used as a dip for potato
chips and similar snack items, and in salads. It can be mixed with
other ingredients, such as yogurt or pepper
jelly, to make spreads.
Cream cheese can be used for many purposes in sweet
and savoury cookery, and is in the same family of ingredients as other milk
products, such as cream, milk, butter, and yogurt. It can be used in cooking to
make cheesecake and
to thicken sauces and make them creamy. Cream cheese is sometimes used in place
of or with butter (typically
two parts cream cheese to one part butter) when making cakes or cookies, and cream
cheese frosting. It is the main ingredient in the filling of crab
rangoon, an appetizer commonly served at U.S. Chinese restaurants. It can also be
used instead of or with butter or olive oil in mashed
potatoes, and in some westernized sushi rolls. It can also be used
for ants on a log.
American cream cheese tends to have lower fat
content than elsewhere, but "Philadelphia" branded cheese is
sometimes suggested as a substitute for petit
suisse
EMULSIFIER
Emulsifier Definition
An emulsifier or emulsifying agent is a compound or
substance at acts as a stabilizer for emulsions preventing liquids that
ordinarily don't mix from separating. The word comes from the Latin word
meaning "to milk", in reference to milk as an emulsion of water and
fat. Another word for an emulsifier is an emulgent.
The term emulsifier may also refer to an apparatus
that shakes or stirs ingredients to form an emulsion.
How an Emulsifier Works
An emulsifier keeps immiscible compounds
from separating by increasing the kinetic stability of the mixture. Surfactants
are one class of emulsifiers, which lower surface tension between
liquids or between a solid and liquid. Surfactants keeps droplet size from
getting large enough that components could separate based on density.
The method of emulsification matters in addition to
the nature of the emulsifier. Proper integration of components extends the
emulsion's ability to resist changes. For example, if you are making an
emulsion for cooking, the mixture will maintain its properties longer if you
use a blender than if you stir the ingredients by hand.
Emulsifier Examples
Egg yolks are
used as an emulsifier in mayonnaise to keep the oil from separating out. The
emulsifying agent is lecithin.
Mustard contains multiple chemicals in the mucilage
around the seed that act together as emulsifiers.
Other examples of emulsifiers include sodium
phosphates, sodium stearoyl lactylate, soy lecithin, Pickering stabilization,
and DATEM (diacetyl tartaric acid ester of monoglyceride).
Homogenized milk, vinaigrettes, and metalworking
cutting fluids are examples of common emulsions.
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